Abbasi, MaryamANTUNES VAZ, PAULO JOAQUIMSilva, JoséMartins, Pedro2025-03-212025-03-212025-01-25Abbasi, M., Váz, P., Silva, J., & Martins, P. (2025). Comprehensive Evaluation of Deepfake Detection Models: Accuracy, Generalization, and Resilience to Adversarial Attacks. Applied Sciences, 15(3), 1225. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031225http://hdl.handle.net/10400.19/9293The rise of deepfakes—synthetic media generated using artificial intelli gence—threatens digital content authenticity, facilitating misinformation and manipu lation. However, deepfakes can also depict real or entirely fictitious individuals, leveraging state-of-the-art techniques such as generative adversarial networks (GANs) and emerging diffusion-based models. Existing detection methods face challenges with generalization across datasets and vulnerability to adversarial attacks. This study focuses on subsets of frames extracted from the DeepFake Detection Challenge (DFDC) and FaceForensics++ videos to evaluate three convolutional neural network architectures—XCeption, ResNet, and VGG16—for deepfake detection. Performance metrics include accuracy, precision, F1-score, AUC-ROC, and Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC), combined with an assessment of resilience to adversarial perturbations via the Fast Gradient Sign Method (FGSM). Among the tested models, XCeption achieves the highest accuracy (89.2% on DFDC), strong generalization, and real-time suitability, while VGG16 excels in precision and ResNet provides faster inference. However, all models exhibit reduced performance under adversarial conditions, underscoring the need for enhanced resilience. These find ings indicate that robust detection systems must consider advanced generative approaches, adversarial defenses, and cross-dataset adaptation to effectively counter evolving deep fake threatseng: deepfakesdeep learningXCeptionResNetVGGDFDCFaceForensics++adversarial robustnessdetection modelstexthttps:// doi.org/10.3390/app150312252076-3417